Perspectives on the Philosophy of Science: Book Review

The central subject of all creation is humanity. Throughout history, all inventions and innovations have aimed at easing human existence. However, in the modern era, the development of science, technology, and the growth of scientific knowledge have caused more harm than good to humanity. In this book, the author discusses a holistic approach to understanding the philosophy of science and its profound connection with the unique subject of all creation—the human race. In other words, the book delves into the sociology of science and science studies.

The author, M. Zaki Kirmani, born in India in 1950, holds a Ph.D. in Chemistry from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Delhi. He is widely recognized as a thinker and writer on the interrelations between science, society, and religion.

The book primarily explores the relationship between science and society, as well as the connection between science and the values that form the foundation of scientific research and development. It is organized into thirteen chapters, divided into three sections: Part One, “University in Turmoil”; Part Two, “Big Science”; and Part Three, “Science in Transformation.”

Part One: University in Turmoil

The author introduces the philosophy of science, a branch of philosophy that seeks to understand scientific knowledge. It addresses questions such as whether scientific knowledge represents an objective and accurate view of the world or if it is a human construct influenced by social, cultural, and historical factors. It also examines what distinguishes science from other forms of inquiry, such as religion or pseudoscience. The author discusses the understanding of scientific knowledge and progress among philosophers of science in recent decades, focusing on the relationship between scientific progress and various socio-cultural, economic, and political factors. The philosophy of science also includes the study of the relationship between science and various aspects of social activity.

The shape and scope of science have changed throughout history, imparting identifiable distinctions to science and development in different cultures, such as Chinese science, Indian science, Islamic science, and Western science. This introduction to the philosophy of science is based on the science that took its foundation from the Islamic world and developed in Western culture, gradually changing worldviews from Islamic to Christian and, finally, to the Western secular worldview.

The author then discusses the changing perspectives in the field of science, where science has become synonymous with progress and strength. A nation is often deemed progressive based on its economic strength, social stability, and moral profundity, yet these factors matter little unless the nation has a sufficiently strong foundation in science and the capacity to solve its own problems. However, the point remains that humans have desires, interests, and inclinations. It is a common perception that scientists often disregard the side effects of science, pursuing it without concern for the potential harm it may pose to life and the environment.

The author further discusses how science is conducted in laboratories. The firsthand observation and experience that led Nobel Laureate Physicist Lord Rutherford to suggest that “science is what scientists do” is explored. The use of animals in scientific experiments, especially in biomedical studies, is well-known; mice are still used to examine the medicinal significance of chemicals, and the use of monkeys is also widely recognized. These findings offer a radically different perspective on science. Their analysis has helped redefine science and pose challenges to the old definition that science is an objective endeavor that stands above all cultures and values—science as a value-free enterprise.

In addressing science studies, the author explains that in a democratic environment, science and scientists must follow general guidelines and are obviously accountable to non-scientists. The definition of science remains incomplete if only specialists in the field are considered. Furthermore, the author discusses Western science in history, tracing its roots back to Greek origins and through the Renaissance. Science has advanced with the inventions and discoveries of various scientists, improving life on Earth. However, science also became an agent of catastrophe during the First World War with the use of ammonia gas as chemical warfare. The Second World War ended with the use of the atomic bomb, elevating the destructive power of science to an almost supernatural level.

The author discusses the infallible perspectives of science presented by various scientists, including Aristotle and Galileo. He delves into Thomas Kuhn’s argument with Aristotle’s ideas and the Vienna School, a group of logical positivists who formed an influential philosophical science movement around the 1920s in Vienna, Austria. The differentiation between science and non-science is examined through Karl Popper’s views and Kuhn’s revolution, as well as the conflict between Popper and Kuhn.

Part Two: Big Science

The author discusses the era following the Second World War when there was a growing realization that science had played a crucial role in the success of Western powers. The landscape of scientific research began to change with the emergence of “Big Science.” The author also discusses the entry of feminists into the debate. Feminist scholars have significantly enriched our understanding of objectivity and the presence of values in scientific practice by critically examining the gendered nature of scientific knowledge production. The feminist critique focused on issues related to women’s participation in science. Feminist philosophers point out the notion of objectivity, value-ladenness, and gender biases in scientific practice.

Post-colonial critiques of science, science studies, and feminist criticism have brought an important realization to the forefront: the concepts, methods, and interpretations of science need a complete reorientation to ensure total transformation and change. This need became more evident as post-colonial criticism of science began to reveal the nature of traditional science that existed and operated in regions before Western colonization.

These studies successfully demonstrated that a robust and sound tradition of science existed in these colonies and showed that Western science was, in many ways, a continuation of these earlier traditions. Additionally, the author discusses other topics such as challenging Eurocentrism and the decolonization of science.

The evolution of colonial legacies in scientific research, focusing on:

Epistemologies: Post-colonial criticism acknowledges and recognizes indigenous knowledge systems and epistemologies, advocating for their integration within the scientific framework.

Ethical Conduct and Education: It emphasizes the importance of ensuring that research findings are accessible and beneficial to the communities involved.T

The author also discusses “Imperial Science,” which was executed by imperial powers in their colonies to exploit natural resources. Ziauddin Sardar, in his book The Revenge of Athena (1988), and Deepak Kumar, in Science and the Raj have sought to demonstrate that British colonialism in India played a significant role in the development of European science.

Islamic Science: In the realm of Islamic science, there exists a body of literature that explains and rationalizes concepts related to nature, the unity of knowledge and values, and public interest, among other topics. Empirical research on Islamic science has progressed alongside the exploration of parameters that firmly link scientific development within Islamic contexts to a conceptual framework rooted in the Quran. These concepts have played a fundamental role in shaping the core values of Islamic scientific culture. Scholars from the Aligarh School and thinkers like Ziauddin Sardar have developed a contemporary understanding of Islamic science. This concept is built upon ten fundamental ideas, with four standing independently and three existing as opposing pairs:

Tawheed (Unity), Khalifa (Trusteeship), Ibadah (Worship), Ilm (Knowledge), Halal (Praiseworthy) – Haram (Blameworthy), Adl (Social Justice) – Zulm (Tyranny), Istislal (Public Interest) – Dhiyah (Waste).

These concepts are of a general nature, influencing every individual and collective activity. They integrate both facts and values, institutionalizing a system of knowledge based on accountability and social responsibility.

Furthermore, the author discusses the basic assumptions regarding various aspects of the universe from different worldviews, starting with those of other religions. The text also explores inherent biases in science and the role of epistemology, posing questions such as: What type of knowledge do we seek? For what purposes is knowledge required? These questions highlight the crucial role that communities play in the process of knowledge generation, a relevance that cannot be ignored. Social epistemologists examine the impact of social processes on individual reasoning and knowledge, a significant theoretical approach given society’s central role in the knowledge-forming process.

Part Three: Science is Transforming

In the course of the 20th century, science witnessed significant changes in its public perception. While science dominated every aspect of life and society, people began to develop deeper concerns about its future as a reliable source of knowledge and its impact on all life forms. The image of scientists eroded considerably, with the public now believing that scientists, like other individuals in society, could be prejudiced, fraudulent, professionally jealous, prideful, and driven by a desire for fame and fortune.

To gain a better understanding, it is essential to examine how science has evolved, how it is funded, the increasing commercialization of science, and the transformation of its internal structure. Today, science is often treated as a commodity, meaning it is viewed as something that can be bought and sold, with its goals serving economic objectives.

In conclusion, the author argues that science is no longer “normal,” referencing Thomas Kuhn’s concept of “normal science”—a type of science conducted under stable conditions, guided by paradigms agreed upon by all stakeholders. However, recent societal changes have led to a significant shift in our expectations of science, transforming it into more of an enterprise. In the sphere of post-normal science, the criteria have shifted from seeking truth to focusing on quality, and from technical concerns to ethical considerations. Moreover, in post-normal science, scientists are under greater scrutiny, which ultimately makes science more people-oriented. In this context, not only scientists but all citizens and decision-makers become aware of the tools that help evaluate science.

The significance of worldview is also emphasized. Questions regarding the origin of humanity and creation by a higher power assume greater significance. Ideas of good and bad, the concept of value, the reliability of knowledge, the role and significance of reason, and the knowledge acquired through sense perception are all of great importance. These questions constitute the basic elements of what is called a worldview.

Post-normal science suggests that a grand unification of concepts and relationships among humanity, society, and the material world is needed. Furthermore, a prior commitment to certain values and the idea of accountability need to be integrated into humanity’s worldview. The Islamic worldview suggests that this potentially secular science may continue its progress within a framework that combines the natural world and divine revelation (Wahi), simultaneously addressing the questions and concerns raised in the post-normal science debate.